Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Land Use and Land Cover Change in the Ebo Forest Reserve, Littoral Region of Cameroon
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47672/ajns.2272Keywords:
Land Use/Land Cover, Change Detection, GIS, Remote Sensing, Ebo Forest ReserveAbstract
Purpose: The purpose of this article is to analyze the spatiotemporal dynamics of land use and land cover (LULC) changes in the Ebo Forest Reserve, a biodiversity hotspot in West Africa, over a 30-year period from 1994 to 2024.
Materials and Methods: This study employed high-resolution satellite imagery from the Landsat sensor and a supervised classification approach to delineate LULC classes, including Dense Forest, Secondary Forest/Agricultural Land, and Settlements/Bare Soils. An accuracy assessment was conducted to validate the LULC maps, revealing overall accuracies of 99.08% in 1994, 99.89% in 2009, and 100% in 2024.
Findings: The results demonstrated a significant decline in Dense Forest cover from 98.0% in 1994 to 82.0% in 2024, alongside an increase in Secondary Forest/Agricultural Land (from 1.8% to 8.3%) and Settlements/Bare Soils (from 0.2% to 9.7%). These changes reflect the evolving needs of rural communities, driven by population growth, agricultural expansion, and infrastructure development. Climate change was identified as a critical driver affecting ecosystem productivity and resilience.
Implications to Theory, Practice and Policy: The findings underscore the need for a balanced approach to managing LULC changes and climate impacts, ensuring sustainable resource management while supporting community development. Policymakers should prioritize frameworks that facilitate sustainable practices to preserve the ecological integrity of the Ebo Forest Reserve.
Downloads
References
Alo, C. A., and Pontius, R. G. (2008). Identifying systematic land-cover transitions using remote sensing and GIS: The fate of forests inside and outside protected areas of Southwestern Ghana. Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 35(2), 280-295. https://doi.org/10.1068/b32571
Ayamba, A. J., Thomas, T. K., Ajebe, H. N., Juscar, N., and Venceslas, P. M. (2024). Distribution of Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus Tetraspis Cope, 1861) Populations on the Outskirts of the Ebo Forest: Implications for Conservation. American Journal of Environment Studies, 7(1), 1-14.
Bennett, G. (2004). Integrating biodiversity conservation and sustainable use: A review of the literature. Biodiversity and Conservation, 13(9), 1687-1719. DOI:10.1023/B:BIOC.0000045822.18765.1a
Bonan, G. B. (2008). Forests and climate change: Forcings, feedbacks, and the climate benefits of forests. Science, 320(5882), 1444-1449. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1155121
Boo, E. (1990). Ecotourism: The potentials and pitfalls. World Wildlife Fund.
Brink, A. B., and Eva, H. D. (2009). Monitoring 25 years of land cover change dynamics in Africa: A sample based remote sensing approach. Applied Geography, 29(4), 501-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2008.10.004
Butt, A., Shabbir, R., Ahmad, S. S., and Aziz, N. (2015). Land use change mapping and analysis using Remote Sensing and GIS: A case study of Simly watershed, Islamabad, Pakistan. The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing and Space Science, 18(2), 251-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrs.2015.07.003
Chigbu, U. E., Paradza, G., and Dachaga, W. (2019). Differentiations in women's land tenure experiences: Implications for women's land access and tenure security in sub-Saharan Africa. Land, 8(2), 22. https://doi.org/10.3390/land8020022
Congalton, R. G., and Green, K. (2009). Assessing the accuracy of remotely sensed data: Principles and practices. CRC Press. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420055139
Ellis, E. A., Baerenklau, K. A., Marcos-Martínez, R., and Chávez, E. (2010). Land use/land cover change dynamics and drivers in a low-grade marginal coffee growing region of Veracruz, Mexico. Agroforestry Systems, 80(1), 61-84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-010-9339-2
ESRI. (2023). ArcGIS Pro (Version 2.2) [Computer software]. Environmental Systems Research Institute.
Foley, J. A., DeFries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., Chapin, F. S., Coe, M. T., Daily, G. C., Gibbs, H. K., Helkowski, J. H., Holloway, T., Howard, E. A., Kucharik, C. J., Monfreda, C., Patz, J. A., Prentice, I. C., Ramankutty, N., and Snyder, P. K. (2005). Global consequences of land use. Science, 309(5734), 570-574. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1111772
Foody, G. M. (2002). Status of land cover classification accuracy assessment. Remote Sensing of Environment, 80(1), 185-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(01)00295-4
Foody, G. M., and Mathur, A. (2004). A relative evaluation of multiclass image classification by support vector machines. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, 42(6), 1335-1343. https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2004.827257
Forman, R. T. T., and Alexander, L. E. (1998). Roads and their major ecological effects. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29(1), 207-231. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.110197.001223
Fuashi, N. A., Ekane, M. M., Jacqueline, E., and Zeh, F. A. (2019). An evaluation of poaching and bushmeat off takes in the Ebo Forest Reserve (EFR), Littoral Region, Cameroon. Journal of ecology and the natural environment, 11(2), 14-25.
Gao, J., and Liu, Y. (2010). Determination of land degradation causes in Tongyu County, Northeast China via land cover change detection. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 12(1), 9-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jag.2009.08.003
Geist, H. J., and Lambin, E. F. (2002). Proximate causes and underlying driving forces of tropical deforestation. BioScience, 52(2), 143-150. https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0143:PCAUDF]2.0.CO;2
Gonwouo, N. L., Rödel, M. O., Ndinga, A., Chirio, L., LeBreton, M., and Ng'weno, C. C. (2006). The amphibians and reptiles of the Ebo forest, Cameroon. Salamandra, 42(1), 1-16.
Google. (2023). Google Earth Pro (Version 7.3.4) [Computer software]. Google LLC.
Harris Geospatial. (2023). ENVI (Version 4.5) [Computer software]. Harris Geospatial Solutions.
Harrison, P. A., et al. (2014). Ecosystem-based management: A framework for integrating biodiversity and ecosystem services into land use planning. Environmental Science and Policy, 38, 121-133. DOI:10.1016/j.envsci.2014.01.005
Hassan, Z., Shabbir, R., Ahmad, S. S., Malik, A. H., Aziz, N., Butt, A., and Erum, S. (2016). Dynamics of land use and land cover change (LULCC) using geospatial techniques: A case study of Islamabad Pakistan. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2414-z
Holling, C. S. (1973). Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 4(1), 1-23. DOI:10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.000245
IPCC. (n.d.). Climate change 2021: The physical science basis. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/
IUCN. (2005). Benefits beyond boundaries: Proceedings of the Vth IUCN World Parks Congress. IUCN.
Johnson, K. A., Polasky, S., Nelson, E., and Pennington, D. (2012). Uncertainty in ecosystem services valuation and implications for assessing land use tradeoffs: An agricultural case study in the Minnesota River Basin. Ecological Economics, 79, 71-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.04.020
Lambin, E. F., and Meyfroidt, P. (2011). Global land use change, economic globalization, and the looming land scarcity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(9), 3465-3472. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100480108
Lambin, E. F., Geist, H. J., and Lepers, E. (2003). Dynamics of land-use and land-cover change in tropical regions. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 28(1), 205-241. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.28.050302.105459
Lambin, E. F., Turner, B. L., Geist, H. J., Agbola, S. B., Angelsen, A., Bruce, J. W., Coomes, O. T., Dirzo, R., Fischer, G., Folke, C., George, P. S., Homewood, K., Imbernon, J., Leemans, R., Li, X., Moran, E. F., Mortimore, M., Ramakrishnan, P. S., Richards, J. F., ... Xu, J. (2001). The causes of land-use and land-cover change: Moving beyond the myths. Global Environmental Change, 11(4), 261-269. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00007-3
Lea, C., and Curtis, A. C. (2010). Thematic accuracy assessment procedures: National Park Service Vegetation Inventory, version 2.0. Natural Resource Report NPS/2010/NRR-2010/204. National Park Service, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Lillesand, T., Kiefer, R. W., and Chipman, J. (2015). Remote sensing and image interpretation. John Wiley and Sons.
Lu, D., and Weng, Q. (2007). A survey of image classification methods and techniques for improving classification performance. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 28(5), 823-870. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160600746456
Maisels, F., Ambahe, R., Ambassa, E., Fosso, B., Fotso, R., and Mugnier, A. (2018). Ebo forest, Cameroon: A rapidly disappearing forest. African Primates, 12, 15-22.
McGarigal, K., Cushman, S. A., and Ene, E. (2012). FRAGSTATS v4: Spatial pattern analysis program for categorical and continuous maps. Computer software program produced by the authors at the University of Massachusetts,Amherst. https://www.umass.edu/landeco/research/fragstats/fragstats.html
McNeely, J. A. (1993). Protected areas for the twenty-first century: The role of protected areas in biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 2(4), 410-426. DOI:10.1007/BF00057856
Megevand, C. (2013). Deforestation trends in the Congo Basin: Reconciling economic growth and forest protection. The World Bank.
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. (2005). Ecosystems and human well-being: Synthesis. Island Press.
Mondal, I., Saha, S., and Mukhopadhyay, A. (2016). Monitoring and modeling of land use/land cover changes using remote sensing and GIS techniques in Sagar Island, India. Modeling Earth Systems and Environment, 2(4), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40808-016-0243-8
Morgan, B. J., Abwe, E. E., Dixson, A. F., and Astaras, C. (2011). The distribution, status, and conservation outlook of the Drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus) in Cameroon. International Journal of Primatology, 32(3), 506-522. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-011-9483-6
Nair, P. K. R. (1993). Agroforestry systems in the tropics. Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Newbold, T., Hudson, L. N., Hill, S. L., Contu, S., Lysenko, I., Senior, R. A., Börger, L., Bennett, D. J., Choimes, A., Collen, B., Day, J., De Palma, A., Díaz, S., Echeverria-Londoño, S., Edgar, M. J., Feldman, A., Garon, M., Harrison, M. L., Alhusseini, T., ... Purvis, A. (2015). Global effects of land use on local terrestrial biodiversity. Nature, 520(7545), 45-50. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14324
Nkembi, L., and Maisels, F. (2020). The Ebo Forest, Cameroon: A biodiversity hotspot under threat. Oryx, 54(3), 301-302. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605320000388
Nkembi, L., Maisels, F., and Fosso, B. (2019). Threats to the Ebo Forest, Cameroon. Oryx, 53(1), 5-6. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605318001406
Ordway, E. M., Asner, G. P., and Lambin, E. F. (2017). Deforestation risk due to commodity crop expansion in sub-Saharan Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 12(4), 044015. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/aa6509
Pontius, R. G., Shusas, E., and McEachern, M. (2004). Detecting important categorical land changes while accounting for persistence. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 101(2-3), 251-268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2003.09.008
Pretty, J. (1995). Participatory learning for sustainable agriculture. World Development, 23(8), 1247-1263. DOI:10.1016/0305-750X(95)00046-F
Reis, S. (2008). Analyzing land use/land cover changes using remote sensing and GIS in Rize, North-East Turkey. Sensors, 8(10), 6188-6202. https://doi.org/10.3390/s8106188
Rembold, F., Carnicelli, S., Nori, M., and Ferrari, G. A. (2000). Use of aerial photographs, Landsat TM imagery and multidisciplinary field survey for land-cover change analysis in the lakes region (Ethiopia). International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 2(3-4), 181-189. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0303-2434(00)85002-6
Seto, K. C., Güneralp, B., and Hutyra, L. R. (2012). Global forecasts of urban expansion to 2030 and direct impacts on biodiversity and carbon pools. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(40), 16083-16088. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1211658109
Shalaby, A., and Tateishi, R. (2007). Remote sensing and GIS for mapping and monitoring land cover and land-use changes in the Northwestern coastal zone of Egypt. Applied Geography, 27(1), 28-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2006.09.004
Siddiqui, K. M. (1991). Socioeconomic aspects of fuelwood management in developing countries. Biomass and Bioenergy, 1(3), 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1016/0961-9534(91)90035-S
Singh, A. (1989). Digital change detection techniques using remotely-sensed data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10(6), 989-1003. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431168908903939
Slocum, T. A., McMaster, R. B., Kessler, F. C., and Howard, H. H. (2009). Thematic cartography and geovisualization (3rd ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
Sutherland, W. J., et al. (2004). The need for evidence-based conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 19(6), 305-308. DOI:10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.017
Tahir, A., Ullah, S., Akbar, T. A., Hassan, Q. K., and Mazhar, R. (2013). Monitoring and analyzing the spatiotemporal urbanization changes in a mega city from Landsat data. Remote Sensing, 5(11), 5917-5936. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs5115917
Tanvir, A., Shabbir, R., and Mumtaz, A. S. (2006). Land use/land cover classification of remotely sensed data using hybrid classifier (Fuzzy Neural Network). GIS Development, 10(11), 1-5.
Teferi, E., Bewket, W., Uhlenbrook, S., and Wenninger, J. (2013). Understanding recent land use and land cover dynamics in the source region of the Upper Blue Nile, Ethiopia: Spatially explicit statistical modeling of systematic transitions. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 165, 98-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2012.11.007
Tripathi, R., and Kumar, A. (2012). Monitoring and modeling of land use/land cover dynamics using remote sensing and GIS: A case study of Deoria district, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of the Indian Society of Remote Sensing, 40(1), 67-77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12524-011-0143-5
Turner, B. L., Lambin, E. F., and Reenberg, A. (2015). The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(23), 7344-7351. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1400829112
UNEP. (2004). Africa environment outlook 2: Our environment, our wealth. United Nations Environment Programme.
USGS. (2023). Earth Explorer. United States Geological Survey. https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov
Verburg, P. H., Schot, P. P., Dijst, M. J., and Veldkamp, A. (2004). Land use change modelling: Current practice and research priorities. GeoJournal, 61(4), 309-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-004-4946-y
Viera, A. J., and Garrett, J. M. (2005). Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic. Family Medicine, 37(5), 360-363.
Vitousek, P. M., Mooney, H. A., Lubchenco, J., and Melillo, J. M. (1997). Human domination of Earth's ecosystems. Science, 277(5325), 494-499. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.494
Vogelmann, J. E., Howard, S. M., Yang, L., Larson, C. R., Wylie, B. K., and Van Driel, N. (2001). Completion of the 1990s National Land Cover Data Set for the conterminous United States from Landsat Thematic Mapper data and ancillary data sources. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 67(6), 650-662.
Weng, Q. (2002). Land use change analysis in the Zhujiang Delta of China using satellite remote sensing, GIS and stochastic modelling. Journal of Environmental Management, 64(3), 273-284. https://doi.org/10.1006/jema.2001.0509
Wickham, J. D., Stehman, S. V., Gass, L., Dewitz, J., Fry, J. A., and Wade, T. G. (2013). Accuracy assessment of NLCD 2006 land cover and impervious surface. Remote Sensing of Environment, 130, 294-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.12.001
Wilkie, D. S., and Finn, J. T. (1988). A spatial model of land use and forest regeneration in the Ituri forest of northeastern Zaire. Ecological Modelling, 41(3-4), 307-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3800(88)90116-8
Woodcock, C. E., and Strahler, A. H. (1987). The factor of scale in remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment, 21(3), 311-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-4257(87)90015-0
WWF. (2001). World Wild Fund for Nature, Cameroon Country Programme Annual report. (Unpublished).
WWF. (2003). Coastal Forests Programme Annual report. WWF Cameroon. (Unpublished).
WWF. (2011). Conserving the Biodiversity of the Ebo Forest, Cameroon. A Bilateral Programme between WWF Netherlands and WWF Cameroon Country Programme Office. Programme Funding Document for Submission to WWF-Netherlands, Phase VI July 2011 - June 2014. (Unpublished).
Xie, Y., Sha, Z., and Yu, M. (2008). Remote sensing imagery in vegetation mapping: A review. Journal of Plant Ecology, 1(1), 9-23. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtm005
Yuan, F., Sawaya, K. E., Loeffelholz, B., and Bauer, M. E. (2005). Land cover classification and change analysis of the Twin Cities (Minnesota) metropolitan area by multitemporal Landsat remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment, 98(2-3), 317-328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2005.08.006
Zhu, Z., and Woodcock, C. E. (2014). Continuous change detection and classification of land cover using all available Landsat data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 144, 152-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2014.01.011
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Guilen-Noel Nghokapin Tataw, Melle Ekane Maurice, Athanasius Fuashi Nkwatoh, Kamah Pascal Bumtu, Echuaba Laris Atianjoh, Nkemndem Agendia Demianus
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
