On the Political Epistemology of Female Circumcision in Africa
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.47672/ejpcr.1172Keywords:
Africa, epistemology, female circumcision, female genital mutilation, female genital cutting, politics, sensitization.Abstract
Purpose: The sensitization which this discussion engenders, has the objective of instituting an ever more formidable resilience in the advocacy against female genital mutilation (FGM) around the globe.
Methodology: Besides the expository, analytic and evaluative character of this work, a particular effort is made to unveil the political and epistemological trappings that undergird the condemnable, but on-going practice of female genital mutilation in different parts of the world, especially in the continent of Africa.
Findings: Some people point out that the word "cutting" is less judgmental and relates better to terms used in many local languages. However, many women's health and human rights organizations use the word "mutilation," not only to describe the practice, but also to point out the violation of women's human rights.
Unique Contribution to theory, practice and policy (recommendation): Ritual circumcision of young males and females is a practice seen in many cultures across the world, including sub-Saharan and North Africa, the Muslim Middle East, the Jewish diaspora, Aboriginal Australia, the Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia, etc. This work discuses female circumcision as "female genital mutilation" and rejects the view proposed by some that its practice is culturally and ethically relative. All three terms, female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation (FGM) describe the procedure that cuts away part or all of the external female genitalia and are used to describe the same thing, that is, mutilation. Some people fear that parents may resent the implication that they are "mutilating" their daughters by participating in this largely cultural event, and so reject the term FGM in favour of FGC.
Downloads
References
Eldeser, Asma, Woman, Why Do You Weep? Circumcision and Its Consequences. London: Zed Press, 1982.
Ginsberg, Faye, "What Do Women Want?: Feminist Anthropology Confronts Clitoridectomy." Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5, No. 1 (March, 1991): 17"”19.
Jirovsky, Elena (2010) "˜Views of women and men in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, on three forms of female genital modification', Reproductive Health Matters, 18(35), pp. 84-93. doi: 10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35513-3.
Llamas, Jewel, (2017) "˜Female Circumcision: The History, the Current Prevalence and the view and current knowledge [Accessed 27th of June 2022].
Lee, C. J. (2018) "˜Reviewed Work(s): African Words, African Voices: Critical Practices in Oral History, by Luise White, Stephan F. Miescher and David William Cohen,' 50(3), pp. 152- 154.
Smith, Courtney (2011), "Who defines "mutilation"? Challenging imperialism in the discourse of female genital cutting," TT- Feminist Formations, 23(1), 30-33.
Gollaher, David (2000), Circumcision. New York: Basic Books. p. 190
Achebe, Chinue (2010), An Image of Africa. London: Penguin, p. 86
Kratz, Corrine (1994), Affecting Performance. Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, p. 78
Al-Refaei Maha, Ateeq et al (2016), "˜Socio-economic and reproductive health outcomes of female genital mutilation,' Archives of Iranian Medicine, 19(11), pp. 805-811. doi: 0161911/AIM.0011
Munir, Muhammad Bilal Munir (2014), "˜Dissecting the claims of legitimization for the ritual of female circumcision or female genital mutilation (FGM),' International Review of Law, 2014 (2), p. 6. doi:10.5339/irl.2014.6.
Njambi, Wairimu Ngaruiya (2004), "Dualisms and female bodies in representations of African female circumcision: A feminist Critique," Feminist Theory, 5(3), 281-303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464700104040811.
Nzegwu, Nkiru Nzegwu (2004), "Feminism and Africa: Impact and limits of the Metaphysics of Gender. In, A companion to African philosophy, Kwasi Wiredu (Ed.) Oxford: Blackwell, p. 77.
Siweya, Tryphosa, Sodi, Tholene, Douglas, Mbuyiselo, "The Notion of Manhood Embedment in the Practice of Traditional Male Circumcision in Ngove Village, Limpopo, South Africa," American Journal of Men's Health 2018, Vol. 12(5) 1567-1569.
Egesah, Omar, "The Relevance of Intangible Cultural Heritage in Modern Times: Evidence from Babukusu Male Circumcision," Sociology and Anthropology 2(7): 2014: 273-274.
Niang, Cheikh Ibrahima and Boirob, Hamadou "˜"˜You Can Also Cut My Finger!: Social Construction of Male Circumcision in West Africa, A Case Study of Senegal and Guinea-Bissau," Reproductive Health Matters 2007, 15(29): 22-25
Diabate, Massa Maka, (1980) Comme une piquˆ re de gueˆpe. Paris7 E´ditions Pre´sence Africaine, p. 58
Oyewumi, Oyeronke, (1997) The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses, (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press), p. 67
Akpuaka, Frank Chinedu Akpuaka, "Vulva adhesions following female circumcision in Nigeria," Postgraduate Doctor, Africa. 1998; 13(4):98-99. http://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/female-eenital-cutting.cfm (11 Dec. 2012)
Ntiri, Daphne Williams, (1993) "Circumcision and Health among Rural Women of Southern Somalia as Part of a Family Life Survey," Health Care for Women International Vol. 14, No. 3 (May-June): 215"”16.
Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (1991) "Virgin Territory: The Male Discovery of the Clitoris," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5, No. 1 (March): 25"”28.
Onuh Sunday O., Igberase Gabriel O., et al., "Female Genital Mutilation: Knowledge, Attitude and Practice among Nurses," in Journal of the National Medical Association, Vol. 98. No. 3, March 2006: 409-410.
Rushwab, Hamid, African Journal of Urology, Volume 19, Issue 3, September 2013: 30-133
Iregbulem, Lawrence M. "Post-circumcision vulva adhesion in Nigeria" British Journal of Plastic Surgeons, (1980), Vol. 33: 83-85.
Thompson, June (1989) "Torture by Tradition." Nursing Times 85, no. 15: 17-18.
Abdalla, Raqiya Haji Dualeh, Sisters in Affliction: Circumcision and Infibulation of Women in Africa. London: Zed Press, pp. 72-75.
Almroth Lars, Bedri Hibba, El Musharaf Susan, Satti Alia, et al (2005). "Urogenital Complications among Girls with Genital Mutilation: A Hospital-Based Study" in Khartoum, African Journal of Reproductive Health, 9(2): 118-119.
Kouba, Leonard & Muasher, Judith, "Female Circumcision: An Overview," 28 Afr. Stud. Rev. 95 (1985): 22-23.
Akinsulure-Smith Adeyinka M., Chu Tracy, Krivitsky Ludmila N., (2018) "West African Immigrant Perspectives on Female Genital Cutting: Experiences, Attitudes, and Implications for Mental Health Service Providers," Journal of International Migration and Integration 19 (2), pp. 259-260.
Lightfoot-Klein, Hanny (1989) Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa (New York: Harrington), pp. 179-181
Montagu, Ashiey, "Mutilated Humanity," (Presented at The Second International Symposium on Circumcision. San Francisco, California. April 30-May 3, 1991, pp. 29-32
Odukogbe Akin-Tunde A., Afolabi Bosede B., Bello Oluwasomidoyin O., Adeyanju Ayodeji S., "Female genital mutilation/cutting in Africa," Translational Andrology and Urology, Vol. 6, No. 2 April, 2017: 139-141.
Behrendt, Alice Behrendt & Moritz, Stephan (2005) "Post-traumatic stress disorder and memory problems after female genital mutilation" American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 162(5):1000- 1002
Shweder, Richard (1990), "Ethical Relativism: Is There a Defensible Version?" Ethos 18: 205-207.
Tobia, Nader (1994) "Female circumcision as a public health issue." North England Journal of Medicine, Vol. 331: 712-716.
Holmes, Robert L., (1993) Basic Moral Philosophy. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing, p. 57
Williams, Bernard (1990) Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985, p. 77
Lucy, John A. (1992) "Development of the linguistic relativity hypothesis in America: Boas and Sapir," in Language Diversity and Thought: A Reformulation of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 81-82.
Sherwin, Susan (1992) No Longer Patient: Feminist Ethics and Health Care. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, p. 76
Ginsberg, Faye (1991) "What Do Women Want?: Feminist Anthropology Confronts Clitoridectomy," in Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5, No. 1 (March): 17-19.
Koso-Thomas, Olayinka Koso-Thomas, The Circumcision of Women. London: Zed Press, 1987, p. 10
Hampshire, Stuart. Innocence and Experience. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1989, p. 83
Bambrough, Renford. Moral Skepticism and Moral Knowledge. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979, p. 88
Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (1991) "Virgin Territory: The Male Discovery of the Clitoris," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5, No. 1 (March): 28-29.
Hanks, William F., & Severi, Carlo (2014) "˜Translating worlds: The epistemological space of translation,' HAU: Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 4 (2): 4-6
El Dareer Asma, (1983) "Attitudes of Sudanese People to the Practice of Female Circumcision," in International Journal of Epidemiology, 12: 138- 139.
Knight, Mary (2001) "˜Curing cut or ritual mutilation? Some remarks on the practice of female and male circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt,' Isis, An international review devoted to the history of science and its cultural influences Vol. 92, (2): 317-318.
Ross, Isabel (1931) "Female circumcision," Lancet, Vol. 218, Issue 5650:1323-1324.
Sequeira, James H. (1931) "Female circumcision and Infibulation," Lancet, Vol. 218, Issue 5645: 1054-1056.
Dommissee, John (1985) "Apartheid as a Public Mental Health Issue," International Journal of Health Services, 15(3): 501-503.
Brandt, Richard (1967) "Ethical relativism," in Paul Edwards (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. New York: Macmillan, pp. 46-47
Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (1991) "Virgin Territory: The Male Discovery of the Clitoris," Medical Anthropology Quarterly 5, No. 1 (March): 29-30.
Taylor, Paul W., (1954) "Four types of Ethical Relativism," Philosophical Review 63 (4): 500-503.
Moser, Shia (1962) "Some remarks about relativism and pseudo-relativism in ethics," 1962, Inquiry: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Philosophy 5 (1-4): 295-297.
Bracanovic, Tomislav, (2011) "Respect for Cultural Diversity in Bioethics. Empirical, Conceptual and Normative Constraints," Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy 14 (3): 229-231.
Diop Nafissatou J., Moreau Amodou, Benga Helene (2008) "Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Programme on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senegal Population Council." Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267779056_Evaluation_of_the_Long-term_Impact_of_the_TOSTAN_Programme_on_the_Abandonment_of_FGMC_and_Early_Marriage_Results_from_a_qualitative_study_in_Senegal_Population_Council. Accessed on the 27th of June, 2022, pp. 23-26
United Nations (2003) "International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation," Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/events/femalegenitalmutilationday/. Accessed on the 27th of June, 2022.
Katinka J. P. Quintelier & Daniel M. T. Fessler, (2012) "Biology and Philosophy," 27 (1): 95-97.
Hugh LaFollette, (1991) "The Truth in Ethical Relativism," Journal of Social Philosophy, 22 (1): 146-148.
Toubia, Nahid F., & Din, Eh Sharief (2003) "Female Genital Mutilation: Have we made Progress?" International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, Vol. 82, Issue 3: 254-257.
Axim, Catherine N., Blair Elizabeth M., Heorhiadi Alla, & Thach Sharon V., (2004), "Comparing Ethical Ideologies Across Cultures," Journal of Business Ethics 54 (2): 103 - 105.
Obermeyer, Carla Maklouf, "The consequences of female circumcision for health and sexuality: an update on the evidence." Cult Health Sex. 2005; 7: 443-435.
Eddenberg, Michael Hannon and Elizabeth (2020) "A Guide to Political Epistemology," in Oxford Handbook of Social Epistemology, Edited by Aidan McGlynn and Jennifer Lackey. New York: Routledge, p. 77.
Grundmann, Thomas (2022) "The Epistemology of Fake News," forthcoming in Sven Bernecker, Amy Floweree & Thomas Grundmann (eds.), Facing Epistemic Authorities: Where Democratic Ideals and Critical Thinking Mislead Cognition. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 78.
Berenstain Nora, Dotson Kristie, Paredes Julieta, Ruiz Elena RuÃz & Silva Noenoe K., (2022) "Epistemic Oppression, Resistance, and Resurgence," in Contemporary Political Theory 21 (2): 283-285.
Fritts, Megan & Cabrera, Frank (2022) "Online Misinformation and "˜Phantom Patterns': Epistemic Exploitation in the Era of Big Data," Southern Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 60, Issue 1: 57-59.
Gibbons, Adam (2022) "Is Epistocracy Irrational?" Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy, Vol. 21, No. 2: 256-258.
Cooper, Jon (2021), "Science of Concord: The Politics of Commercial Knowledge in Mid-Eighteenth-Century Britain," Intellectual History Review, Vol. 31, Issue 2: 310-313.
Mamstrom, Maria Frederika (2016) The Politics of Female Circumcision in Egypt: Gender, Sexuality and the Construction of Identity, (England: Bloomsbury Publishing), pp. 27-29.
Earp, Brian D (2015) "Sex and Circumcision," American Journal of Bioethics 15 (2): 43-45
Earp, Brian D (2012) "I can't get no (epistemic) satisfaction: Why the hard problem of consciousness entails a hard problem of explanation Dialogues in Philosophy," Mental and Neuro Sciences 5 (1): 14-20.
Wieviorka, Michel (2012) "Multiculturalism: A Concept to be Redefined and Certainly Not Replaced by the Extremely Vague Term of Interculturalism," Journal of Intercultural Studies 33 (2): 15-18
Coene, Gily & Saharso, Sawitri (2019) "Gender and Cultural Understandings in Medical Nonindicated Interventions: A Critical Discussion of Attitudes towards Non-therapeutic Male Circumcision and Hymen (Re) Construction" Clinical Ethics 14 (1): 33-37.
Sala, Richard & Manara, Duilio (2001) "Nurses and Requests for Female Genital Mutilation: Cultural Rights versus Human Rights," Nursing Ethics 8 (3): 247-258.
Briggs, Lawanson Agbani (1998) "Female Circumcision in Nigeria: Is It Not Time for Government Intervention?" Health Care Analysis 6 (1): 14-23.
Meyers, Diana Tietjens, (2000) "Feminism and Women's Autonomy: The Challenge of Female Genital Cutting." Metaphilosophy 31 (5): 469-491.
Alcoff, Linda Martin (2007), "Epistemologies of Ignorance: Three Types," in Sullivan, S and Tuana, N., (eds), Race and Epistemologies of Ignorance, (Albany: State University of New York), pp. 39-58.
Sanogo, Fanidh & Pusumane, One "A Call for The Epistemic Fluidity of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting https://www.e-ir.info/2021/03/23/a-call-for-the-epistemic-fluidity-of-female-genital-mutilation-cutting/ Accessed on July 9, 2022, pp. 3-5
Dawla, Aida Seif El (1999) "The Political and Legal Struggle over Female Genital Mutilation in Egypt: Five Years Since the ICPD, Reproductive Health Matters, Vol. 7, No. 13, pp. 128-136
Knowx, Amy (2021) "Female Genital Cutting in Africa: The West and the Politics of "˜Empowerment,'" available at: https://www.e-ir.info/2021/03/19/female-genital-cutting-in-africa-the-west-and-the-politics-of-empowerment/ Accessed on July 10, 2022, pp. 3-5
Bur, Mona "Advancing knowledge of Psycho-Sexual Effects of Female Genital Cutting Assessing the Evidence A Seminar Report Alexandria, Egypt October 10- 12, 2004." International Network to Analyze, Communicate and Transform the Campaign Against FGC/FGM/FC (INTACT) Population Council, West Asia North Africa Regional Office.
Benedicta Ifeyinwa Nnodum, (2002) "Female genital mutilation and its effects: Implications for counselling," Nigerian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Vol. 8, No. 1: 113-115
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2022 Rev. Fr. Joseph T. Ekong, O.P, Ph.D
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgment of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
